Evolution of Respiratory Systems in Animals

Evolution of Respiratory Systems in AnimalsJonathan Codd internal respiration in savages is a necessity as it entirelyows the switch over of respiratory gases that be required for survival. there are huge variations in the designs of respiratory frames and all(prenominal) has evolved due to selective force per unit areas in environments, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as food and territory. The evolution of species is driven in part by limited resources and the adaptations in which these poop be exploited. This report allow describe the evolution from aquatic environments to terrestrial environments as part of this movement, of animal(prenominal)s onto overthrow, bring aboutd a guinea pig for the fast development of unseasvirtuosodly designed dusts in order to support carry suspire as oppose to gaining oxygen from wet using gills. Lungfish first gear developed lungs, and the cogency to take a breather circularise or else of water, whilst living in aquatic en vironments and the appearance of pass around-breathing in fish is the major plungeation for terrestrialization. from each one species has take issueent requirements due to different techniques of movement and nutriment, for example, and respiratory systems are required to support the conductstyle of each species in order to exchange the maximum amount of gas possible. The ability to develop accessional processes equal to(p) to economic aid in ventilating system has ensured that the oxygen demands of each animal is met.The respiratory system of animals is crucial for the life as it allows the exchange of gases amid an organism and the environment. These respiratory systems confine been forced to continually develop new designs dep remaindering on new evolutionary pressures from changing environments. Many species waste evolved due to the availability of new niches and undeveloped resources and thus have been forced to develop supporting tools of cellular respiration. This report examines the evolution of respiration from aquatic environments to the terrestrialization of land and the rapid refinement of respiratory methods that soon followed. The evolution of lungs from gills in the Sarcopterygii lineage has allowed the tetrapod transition onto land and is answerable for the ability to eventually develop fully terrestrial species that are able to respire solely var.. each(prenominal) system must be complementary to the requirements of the species and environment in order to tackle the aerobic demands and approximately species are able to permit various methods of respiration in order to undergo sufficient range of gaseous exchange. Each method has been specifically developed for the niche, and uncinate processes have formed in order to dish out with ensuring respiration can be as efficient as possible.IntroductionThe evolution of phone line breathing was spanking in the transition of life from aquatic to terrestrial environments and, therefore the rapid evolution of the animal regions physiology and anatomy in order to exploit all available niches (Graham, 1997). The development of song breathing would non, however, have taken sic if the atmospheric composition had not altered during the Phanerozoic era, around 550 million years ago, when the c oncentration of oxygen showed an increase, likely due to the appearance of large vascular land plants (Ra et al., 2007). The ozone layer was thought to have formed around two billion years ago (Walker, 1978) and is essential for allowing the survival of life on earth by preventing game-energy ultra-violet radiation from entering the earths atmosphere (Parson, 2003). The movement onto land has allowed for a huge expansion in the amount of available niches and therefore ca employ a rapid radiation in the system plans of animals and a assortment of respiratory mechanisms to evolve in support (Ra et al., 2007) The Importance of Pulmonary SurfactantLungs differ throug h with(predicate) appear the animal kingdom as they have evolved for the specific niche of each species nevertheless one thing they all commonly include is a gas-liquid interface which allows surface tension to get up, causing complications (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). The pulmonic surfactant system prevents the collapse of respiratory surfaces in lungs due to unequal pressures arising from differently sized alveoli, as well as maintaining a reduced resistance to pipeline stream and improving lung compliance (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). in that respect is overwhelming deduction that there was a single evolutionary origin of the surfactant system, thought to be from the epithelial cells lining the pharynx (Daniels et al., 2004), due to Surfactant Protein-A (SP-A) or like-structures be present in all the major vertebrate groups implying that it is an essential pre-requi set for lung evolution (Sullivan et al., 1998). Surfactant has been canvass in swim bladders, which have pre sently been shown to be a homolog of the lung, with the original principal function being an anti-adhesive unless likewise with involvement in preventing water from entering the swim bladders or lungs (Daniels et al., 2004)Pulmonary surfactant composition is primarily lipids (around 90%) to the highest degree of which are phospholipids, and the remaining ten percent is comprised of proteins. (Veldhuizen et al., 1998). There were found to be four types of surfactant proteins (SPs) A, B, C and D which all have varying properties and roles within the surfactant system SP-B and SP-C were both found to be highly involved in the surface activity due to hydrophobic properties and SP-D is hydrophilic and part of the collectin family (Wstneck et al., 2005). Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is the or so hydrophobic lipid component and therefore DPPC-rich monolayers are able to sit packed tightly together, ensuring the forcing out of water, however they are not well suited for the ex pansion of the lungs and so are alternated with mixed monolayers when demand (Wstneck et al., 2005).Respiration in angleFish evolution has allowed both water and tenor breathing to arise as a means of gas exchange and as these vary greatly in properties, such as density and the oxygen concentration, the mechanistic pumps must excessively show great diversity to meet the requirements for effective respiration (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005).Fish that breathe in water single-valued function gills which are highly evolved variety meat that provide large surface areas and thin barriers in the midst of the fishs blood and the aquatic environment, thus allowing for a high rate of gaseous diffusion (Evans et al., 2005). Whilst they show properties for gaseous exchange the gills are multifunctional organs which are to a fault responsible for the loss of ions and nitrogenous waste, therefore fish must also have regulatory mechanisms allowing them to successfully osto a greater exten tgulate (Evans et al., 2005). As fish are continually moving they all require a buccal pressure pump as well as a suction pump, near likely the operculum, working in tandem to allow for expansion and compression to move water across the gills the suction pump is more prominent in some(a) species such as the Osteichthyes compared to the Chondrichthyes (Ap and La, 2001). A counter-current method is schematic due to water going in the opposite direction to the movement of blood, with the secondary lamellae being the site of gaseous exchange (Shelton and Randall, 1962). The counter-current mechanism is required as the content of dissolved oxygen is less in water than it would be in the atmosphere (Ibanez et al., 2008) and thus allows high concentrations of gas to be exchanged, whereas a con-current mechanism would too quickly reach an equilibrium and efficient extraction of oxygen would cease (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005).There are two hypothesis surrounding the origin of stress breathing in fish, one suggests that lungs arose only once at the base of the Osteichthyes, whereas opposing arguments have recently suggested that lungs evolved on at least two break off occasions and instead developed in both the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii (Brainerd, 1994). Some air breathing fish, such as the Actinopterygian, are able to modify their buccal pump to create a four-pump mechanism, using two handout and compression roulette wheels, in which expired air is first pumped into the lungs before being compressed out into the atmosphere (Perry et al., 2001).When empty lively air is inhaled via the expansion of the buccal cavity before finally being compressed into the lungs, this is shown to fully expand and compress and so there is little mixing of expired and fresh air (Perry et al., 2001). Not all air breathing fish show this mechanism as some Dipnoi, lungfish for example, go away legato ventilate using the primitive two-stroke mechanism (Burggren and Johans en, 1986) and even though there can be mixing of expired and fresh air in the lungs, there has been no significant evidence to suggest that this is any less effective than the four-stroke method as breathing accessories allows the increase in mountain of inhaled gases (Brainerd, 1994).TerrestrialisationLungs were an obvious pre-requisite for the transition onto land but there were many different anatomical and physiological adaptations requisite for tetrapods before they were able to fully terrestrialise and get going free of an aquatic environment (Daeschler et al., 2006). In the late Devonian, terrestralisation occurred as a means of exploring previously unexploited niches and resources through the evolution of tetrapods via the Sarcopterygian lineage, whose habitats were most likely mud-flats neighbouring the waters jar against (Graham and Lee, 2004).Tetrapods share common features with both modern day land vertebrates and fishes and the discovery of Tiktaalik rosaea allowed the transitional form to be studied in detail to provide evidence on the necessary adaptations required for terrestrialisation (Sarfati, 2007). The skeleton of Tiktaalik was found to be a lot stronger than that of its sarcopterygii-like ancestors and would have allowed it to support its own body weight in substrate, it also showed a longer snout and loss of bony gill covering but still keep fish-like qualities, such as well developed gill arches and fin rays which implies that it still spent a legal age of time in an aquatic environment (Ahlberg and Clack, 2006). Tetrapod digits were seen to arise from the pectoral fins of Sarcopterygii, although there was seen to be a sort there remained a few anomalies throughout the development (Sarfati, 2007).When discovered Tiktaalik was a hugely important addition to the fossil record and bridged the gap between fish and tetrapods after confirmation from phylogenetic studies targetd it on the Sarcopterygian to tetrapod lineage (Sarfati, 2 007). The further anatomical and physiological changes that continued after Tiktaalik were responsible for allowing tetrapods to adopt new mechanisms of feeding and locomotion that were required for survival on land and thus was responsible for a huge flavour in the necessary radiation of respiratory systems (Clack, 2006).Respiration in Amphibians and Non-avian ReptilesAmphibians are able to breathe by utilising cutaneous methods, using their skin to exchange gases, which could also suggest that it was an important method of respiration used during the transition onto land (Gans, 1970). JC1Some amphibians, that have a large enough surface area to bulk ratio, such as certain species of salamanders, will rely solely on cutaneous respiration for gaseous exchange due to an absence of lungs (Feder and Burggren, 1985). Cutaneous respiration is based on an infinite pool of oxygen, through air or water mediums, in what is know as a co-current or open flow and is a passive process as ther e is a lack of inspiratory or expiratory flow (Burggren and Moallf, 1984). Whilst a few amphibians will rely only on cutaneous respiration, most will on the button use it as an accessory breathing mechanisms and will have other primary methods of respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006).As a means of understanding the primitive breathing in early tetrapods and air breathing fish, other species of salamanders have been studied. It was found that they use a method similar to the two-stroke mechanism previously described in Dipnoi in which during inspiration they will expand their buccal cavity in order to create a negative pressure required to draw in fresh air, therefore supporting claims that this is most likely the primite mechanism of respiration seen in Sarcopterygii and early tetrapods (Brainerd et al., 1993).Whilst most air breathers will create a negative pressure to cause air to move into the lungs, frogs and some air breathing fish, are cognize as positive pressure brea thers as they use their buccal chamber to fill with air which they will past actively force into the lungs (Jones, 1982). In frogs this system consists of two valves the paired nares, which remain open for the bulk of the time with the function of connecting the buccal cavity to the international air and the glottal valve which spends the majority of the time close and is only opened when air is entering or leaving the lungs from the buccal chamber (Jones, 1982). This breathing cycle is most likely to begin with expiration as breath-holding was found to most likely occur during the end of the buccal inspiration (Jones, 1982).Reptiles, are believed to be the first group of animals to involve movements of the ribs in the assisting with lung ventilation (Nielsen, 1961). dreaming breathing is thought to have arison in amniotes, which includes reptiles and mammals, most of which have tried to eliminate their reliance on costal ambitiousness by evolving accessory breathing methods to aid in respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). It is evident that aspiration breathing evolved after the buccal pump mechanisms, however, there have been no transitional forms intermediate between the two found which suggests that aspiration breathing developed abruptly and amniotes soon after lost the ability to utilise a buccal cavity (Brainerd, 1999). Studies in lepidosaurs, established that most have an unidivided pleural cavity, which is also present in amphibians and air breathing fish, suggesting that this is the primitive form and that seperation occurred only later on in evolutionary history (Brainerd, 1999).Crocodiles display many unique features compared to the rest of the reptile group as they use a hepatic pistol to ventilate their lungs by utlising a muscle known as the diaphragmaticus, which is not homologous with any other diaphragmatic muscle (Brainerd, 1999). The liver divides the thoracoabdominal cavity and the diaphragmaticus muscle, orinating from the pelv is and caudal gastralia, is responsible for the expansion of the thoracic cavity by retracting the liver this creates a negative pressure inside and fresh air is forced in, with inspiration containing an intermediate pause (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). The multicameral chamber seen in crocdiles allows high aerobic demands to be met, which is vital for their survival, and is only found in few other reptile species (Perry, 1988).Respiration in Avian ReptilesAvian reptiles, more commonly known as birds, use a lung-air sac respiratory system which allows cross-current flow, where air and blood are flowing in the same direction to one another (Scheid and Piiper, 1972). The avian respiratory system is small and compact and the thin barriers are thought to be advantageous during flight but not necessary as the mammalian bat respiratory system is dissimilar but still successful for long migratory flights (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). Uncinate processes, which alternate depending on the niche of each bird, are fundamental in the avian respiratory system and assist with the movement of the ribs and sternum, allowing for both inspiration and expiration to take place (Codd et al., 2008).The air sacs are used only for ventilation, with gaseous exchanges taking place as air is passed through the parabronchi, which are thin tubes with openings at each end allowing the uni-directional flow of air, which was found to be unique to avian respiration (Scheid, 1979). The parabronchi are packed into a dense hexagonal array with gas exchange tissue, known as the mantle, surrounding the lumen of each composing a networks of both blood and air capillaries (Brown et al., 1997). The cross-current system found in birds requires these blood and air capillaries to be in close proximity and arranged replicate to one another in order for diffusion to take place with the uni-directional flow being studied and found to be of no additional advantage to this cross-current system (Scheid, 1979).Th ere are a essential of two inspiratory and expiratory cycles that must occur for the complete flow of air through the lungs (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). During the first inspiration air flow is split from the trachea to the caudally grouped air sacs or the dorsobronchi, where it will enter the parabronchi and the gas that remained in the lungs from the previous inspiration is forced cranially (Brown et al., 1997). When the first expiration takes place the air remaining in the caudal air sacs moves through the parabronchi, where gas exchange takes place, and another inspiration forces the air into the cranial air sacs (Brown et al., 1997). To exit the respiratory system, the second expiration forces the air to flow from the cranial air sacs through the ventrobronchi and exits using the trachea (Reece et al., 2015).The trachea involved in avian respiration is made up of complete cartilagenous rings and is found to be around 4.5 times the size of mammalian homologues which allows larger t idal volumes and increased compliance within the system (Reece et al., 2015). There have been no valves discovered in the avian respiratory system and therefore to maintain unidirectional air flow it has been suggested that aerodynamics methods, such as jet flow, must be existing in the system during inspiration, and increased resistance through the intrapulmonary bronchus is used during expiratory flow (Scheid, 1979).Respiration in MammalsThe respiratory system in mammals is entirely separated from the abdominal cavity and the diaphragm and ribs are both crucial in the mechanism of respiration (Keith, 1905). The muscles of the ribs, such as the intercostals, are required for the expansion of the ribcage, which allows the neccesary generating of negative pressure caused by increased the lung volume for aspiration breathing (Perry et al., 2010).The diaphragm is responsible for the control of inspiration as it is able to contract and running(a) the thoracic cavity which creates a ne gative pressure, thus drawing air into the lungs (Loh et al., 1977). The pericardium is closely bound to the lungs and is affiliated to the central tendon of the diaphragm allowing the vital conjunction of both (Keith, 1905). The elevation of the rib cage, which allows further increase in the available volume for external air to enter the lungs, is also under diaphragmattic control (Loh et al., 1977).The mammalian lung is highly mazy and involves lots of branching in order to increase surface area from the trachea, which then splits in series into the primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi and finally the alveoli. There are around 3108 alveolar air sacs which comprise of thin membranes to increase the surface area and allow the ease of diffusion of gases between them and the capillaries (Hoppensteadt and Peskin, 2002). Inspiration and expiration cycling allows the constant renewal of air into and out of the lungs and provides mammalian species with sufficient oxyge n to meet the aerobic demands (Weibel, 1984).Respiration in InsectsThere is a wide variety of mechanisms adopted by insects for respiration due to the huge variation in available niches. All will utilise a network of air- change vessels, which are known as tracheae and tracheoles, and can be as small as 1m in diameter, with most terminating nearby to the mitochondria of cells (Miller, 1966). The tracheal system at rest is filled with fluid which is thought to be actively absorbed by the permeable inner tracheal paries when required for breathing, using active transport or secretion from cells (Wigglesworth, 1953). Experiments have demonstrated that during tracheal compression, which is controlled by an increased pressure inside the exoskeleton, the tracheae noticeably shrink in diameter to aid in air convection and increased diffusion of oxygen into the tissues due to a high pressure build up (Westneat et al., 2003).Spiracles are required at the external and internal barrier in the tracheael system to allow external air through the skin and previous experiments have found if these are blocked then the insect cannot survive as respiration will cease (Fraenkel and Herford, 1938). Interneurons are essential as they are responsible for the pairing of spiracle movement with ventilation by communicating with the spiracles motor neurones (Miller, 1966). The discontinuous gas exchange cycles present in insects will typically occur in three stages, beginning the closed-spiracle phase where only small amounts of external gas exchange are able to take place (Lighton, 1996). A fluttering-spiracle phase permits oxygen uptake for the diffusion of gases into the tracheael tissues and finally an open-spiracle phase concludes the cycle whilst allowing the release of accumulated carbon dioxide (Lighton, 1996).Ventilation is under endogenously controlled rhythms produced by the central nervous system which allows aerobic respiration rates in flight muscles to be so successful that they can be challenged only by certain species of bacteria (Miller, 1966). During insect respiration air is sucked into the tracheal system by creating negative alterations in internal pressure using the pumping of hemolymph by the lovingness or the contracting of abdominal muscles, others can include passive diffusion or autoventilation (Westneat et al., 2003).Respiration in CetaceansCetaceans have evolved a much more unusual respiratory system to any terrestrial mammal, as the emaciated passageway has moved to a more dorsal position to allow the exclusion of water from the system and ease of breathing as they surface (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991). A nasal plug, made up of nasal plug muscle, connective tissue and adipose tissue, is responsible for the seperation of the internal and external environment and is retracted anteriolaterally for respiration by bilaterally paired nasal plug muscles (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991).The lung size of cetaceans varies depending on the depth of the dives undertaken, due to the variety of pressures causing differing extents of thoracic collapse (Piscitelli et al., 2010). It was found that the lung size will be reduced in cetaceans that undergo deeper dives and there will be an increase in the thoracic mobility. The lungs of larger whales were found to possess highly heavy myoelastic bundles in the air sacs and alvolar membranes that were not found in much smaller cetacea (Wislocki, 1942). oddmentThe evolution of respiratory systems has been an extremely specific process that has showed both gradual, and rapid changes throughout the many lineages of the animal kingdom in order to encorporate universal requirements, as well as accessory breathing mechanisms (Weibel, 1984). Respiration is a vital life process required for survival and it is essential that gas exchange is as efficient as possible in order to allow high oxygen-demanding aerobic activities to take place when necessary (Perry, 1988).Each respiratory system may have a variety of additional mechanisms, uncinate processes, that assist in the breathing mechanics to enable the ease of transporting larger volumes of air within each system (Codd et al., 2008). The pulmonary surfactant system is of great importance, as it allows the successful existance of such mechanisms by preventing collapse of respiratory surfaces, as well as aiding them by increasing lung compliance and reducing the resistance to air flow (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003).The evolution of efficient respiratory systems, when paired with other necessary adaptations, has provided a foundation for more complex body systems to develop to allow the utilisation of previously unexploited resources and niches, thus providing organisms advantages in the animal kingdom (Graham, 1997).BibliographyAhlberg, P.E., Clack, J.A., 2006. Palaeontology A firm step from water to land. Nature 440, 747-749. inside10.1038/440747aAp, S., La, F.-G., 2001. Ventilatory modes and mechanics of the porcupine sk ate (Leucoraja erinacea) testing the continuous flow model. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 1577-1587.Brainerd, E.L., 1999. hot perspectives on the evolution of lung ventilation mechanisms in vertebrates. Exp. Biol. Online 4, 1-28. inside10.1007/s00898-999-0002-1Brainerd, E.L., 1994. The Evolution of Lung-Gill Bimodal alert and the Homology of Vertebrate Respiratory Pumps. Integr. Comp. Biol. 34, 289-299. inside10.1093/icb/34.2.289Brainerd, E.L., Ditelberg, J.S., Bramble, D.M., 1993. Lung ventilation in salamanders and the evolution of vertebrate air-breathing mechanisms. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 49, 163-183. doi10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00896.xBrainerd, E.L., Ferry-Graham, L.A., 2005. Mechanics of Respiratory Pumps, in Physiology, B.-F. (Ed.), Fish Biomechanics. Academic Press, pp. 1-28. doi10.1016/S1546-5098(05)23001-7Brainerd, E.L., Owerkowicz, T., 2006. Functional geomorphology and evolution of aspiration breathing in tetrapods. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol., Frontiers in Comparative Physiology II Respiratory Rhythm, Pattern and Responses to environmental Change 154, 73-88. doi10.1016/j.resp.2006.06.003Brown, R.E., Brain, J.D., Wang, N., 1997. The avian respiratory system a unique model for studies of respiratory toxicosis and for monitor air quality. Environ. Health Perspect. 105, 188-200.Burggren, W., Moallf, R., 1984. Active regulation of cutaneous exchange by capillary recruitment in amphibians Experimental evidence and a revised model for skin respiration. Respir. Physiol. 55, 379-392. doi10.1016/0034-5687(84)90059-8Burggren, W.W., Johansen, K., 1986. Circulation and respiration in lungfishes (dipnoi). J. Morphol. 190, 217-236. doi10.1002/jmor.1051900415Clack, J.A., 2006. The emergence of early tetrapods. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 232, 167-189. doi10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.019Codd, J.R., Manning, P.L., Norell, M.A., Perry, S.F., 2008. Avian-like breathing mechanics in maniraptoran dinosaurs. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 275, 157-161. doi10.1098/rspb .2007.1233Daeschler, E.B., Shubin, N.H., Jenkins, F.A., 2006. A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan. Nature 440, 757-763. doi10.1038/nature04639Daniels, C.B., Orgeig, S., 2003. Pulmonary Surfactant The Key to the Evolution of Air Breathing. discussion Phsiology Sci. 18, 151-157.Daniels, C.B., Orgeig, S., Sullivan, L.C., Ling, N., Bennett, M.B., Schrch, S., Val, A.L., Brauner, C.J., 2004. The Origin and Evolution of the Surfactant System in Fish Insights into the Evolution of Lungs and Swim Bladders. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. Ecol. Evol. Approaches 77, 732-749. doi10.1086/422058Evans, D.H., Piermarini, P.M., Choe, K.P., 2005. The Multifunctional Fish Gill Dominant Site of Gas tack, Osmoregulation, Acid-Base Regulation, and Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste. Physiol. Rev. 85, 97-177. doi10.1152/physrev.00050.2003Feder, M.E., Burggren, W.W., 1985. Cutaneous Gas Exchange in Vertebrates Design, Patterns, Control and Implications. Biol. Rev. 60, 1-45. doi1 0.1111/j.1469-185X.1985.tb00416.xFraenkel, G., Herford, G.V.B., 1938. The Respiration of Insects Through the Skin. J. Exp. Biol. 15, 266-280.Gans, C., 1970. Respiration in archean Tetrapods-The Frog is a Red Herring. Evolution 24, 723-734. doi10.2307/2406552Graham, J.B., 1997. Air-Breathing Fishes Evolution, Diversity, and Adaptation. Academic Press.Graham, J.B., Lee, H.J., 2004. Breathing Air in Air In What Ways Might Extant Amphibious Fish Biology Relate to Prevailing Concepts about Early Tetrapods, the Evolution of Vertebrate Air Breathing, and the Vertebrate Land Transition? Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 77, 720-731. doi10.1086/425184Hoppensteadt, F.C., Peskin, C.S., 2002. Gas Exchange in the Lungs, in Modeling and Simulation in Medicine and the Life Sciences, Texts in Applied Mathematics. Springer New York, pp. 75-108. doi10.1007/978-0-387-21571-6_3Ibanez, J.G., Hernandez-Esparza, M., Doria-Serrano, C., Fregoso-Infante, A., Singh, M.M., 2008. Dissolved Oxygen in Water, in Environmen tal Chemistry. Springer New York, pp. 16-27. doi10.1007/978-0-387-49493-7_2Jones, R.M., 1982. How toads breathe Control of air flow to and from the lungs by the nares in Bufo marinus. Respir. Physiol. 49, 251-265. doi10.1016/0034-5687(82)90077-9Keith, A., 1905. The Nature of the Mammalian Diaphragm and pleural Cavities. J. Anat. Physiol. 39, 243-284.Lighton, J.R., 1996. Discontinuous gas exchange in insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 41, 309-324. doi10.1146/annurev.en.41.010196.001521Loh, L., Goldman, M., Davis, J.N., 1977. The assessment of diaphragm function. Medicine (Baltimore) 56, 165-169.Miller, P.L., 1966. The Regulation of Breathing in Insects, in J.W.L. Beament, J.E.T. and V.B.W. (Ed.), Advances in Insect Physiology. Academic Press, pp. 279-354. doi10.1016/S0065-2806(08)60189-7Nielsen, B., 1961. On the Regulation of the Respiration in Reptiles. J. Exp. Biol. 38, 301-314.Parson, E.A., 2003. Protecting the Ozone Layer Science and Strategy. Oxford University Press.Perry, S.F., 1988. 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Pipe Surge and Water Hammer Experiment

Pipe Surge and urine Hammer ExperimentThe butt of the work infrataken was consisted twain sepa measure experiments, hollo surge and weewee hammer. These be some(prenominal) nonplusd by a reduction in the flow pace within a pipe. They be 2 alternative dissipations of the energizing verve of the fluid into an other(a) form of energy mechanical press in the case of the pee hammer, and probably energy in the case of the surge shaft.The surge shaft is a device utilize as a way of avoiding pressure surges which accompany the water hammer effect, by both(prenominal)owing the fluid up a shaft near the valve, thus absorbing the pressure exerted by the fluid on the valve and the pipe. The aim of these both experiments was to comp ar the results with the theory derived from Newtons Second Law of Motion.IntroductionPipe SurgeWater wrinkles and distribution placements are subjected to surges almost daily, which over epoch idler cause damage to equipment and the transmiss ion line itself. Surges are caused by explosive changes in flow velocity that result from common causes such as rapid valve closure, center starts and stops, and wrong(p) filling practices. Pipelines often see their stolon surge during filling when the air universe expelled from a pipeline rapidly escapes through a manual vent or a throttled valve followed by the water. Being more times denser than air, water follows the air to the outlet at a high velocity, but its velocity is dependant by the outlet on that pointby causing a surge. It is imperative that the filling flow rate be carefully controlled and the air vented through veraciously sized automatic air valves. Similarly, line valves mustiness be closed and opened slowly to pr charget rapid changes in flow rate. The operation of pumps and explosive stoppage of pumps due to power failures probably have the most frequent impact on the system and the greatest potential to cause signifi batcht surges.If the pumping syste m is non controlled or protected, contamination and damage to equipment and the pipeline itself grass be serious. The effects of surges digest be as minor as loosening of pipe joints to as severe as damage to pumps, valves, and concrete structures. Damaged pipe joints and vacuum conditions can cause contamination to the system from ground water and hazardflow situations. Uncontrolled surges can be catastrophic as well. Line breaks can cause flooding and line shifting can cause damage to supports and even concrete piers and vaults. Losses can be in the millions of dollars so it is essential that surges be understood and controlled with the proper equipment.Water HammerWater hammer is the formation of pressure ruffles as the result of a sudden change in gas velocity in a piping system. Water hammer ordinarily occurs when a fluid flow start or stops quickly or is forced to take in a rapid change in direction. Quick closing of valves and stoppage of pump can prepare water hamme r. Valve closing in 1.5s or less depending upon the valve size and system conditions causes an abrupt stoppage of the slow. Since liquid is non compressible, any energy that is applied to is instantly transmitted. The pressure waves created at rapid valve closure can reach five times the systems working pressure. If not considered for, this pressure metre give rapidly step on it to the go of expire in liquid, which can exceed 1200 m/s, causing burst of the pipeline and pump causing as well as fracture in the pipe fittings. For this solid ground, it is essential to understand under what conditions these pressure waves are produced and reduce the pressure rise as much as possible in a piping system.Risk assessmentIn observational work there are ceaselessly some risks to everyone in the lab, hence a health and safety briefing before commencing the labs. These will witting people to the potential risks and the appropriate steps to reduce the likelihood of accidents. Therefore it is crucial to follow the advice of the rung supervising at every times and use the protection equipment provided.There are different prospect around in the lab, identifying them is important.There are people doing other experiments at the aforementioned(prenominal) time in the lab, make sure what the worst situation can happen with it.Therefore knowing where is the closest resurrect exit is important, or the short route to get out the build.Making sure there are not wire on the floor, incase people fell over it.Make sure that all the equipments dismissal to be used are safe.Connecting the equipments correctly to prevent short circuit.Make sure that the committal is not too monstrous to left.When loading the equipment, be careful it energy fell on to someones toe.Be aware of anything caught into the equipmentWhen leaving the lab make sure things are placed back to the reliable place, and all equipments are switched off.There are ways to prevent it happen.Make sure you kn ow the risk of the experiment. pick up others to help to set up, if not sure what the equipment does.Do not leave anything unattended.Not lift anything heavy alone or with equipments help.Wear PPEMethodologyPipe SurgeThe equipment is set up as shown take care 4 1, where the engineer evil can be measured. The still head (hs) is recorded through the train on the surge shaft when there is no flow, this will be the datum level end-to-end the experiment. Then adjusting the approach valve and supply control valve, so that there is a steady of water flow into the sump tank, where the new reading in the surge shaft is the velocity head (hv). Then the gate valve is close and wait for the oscillations to stop, once it is stopped the lever is opened to operated gate valve and the water level should drivel back to the same treasure for the velocity head.The value of hs and hv are used to calculate the head loss due to corrasion which is hs hv = hf. The flow rate will be needed by closing the shucks tank to find the quantity of water in the tank in 60 seconds. More reading should be taken for correct accuracy. The flow rate should not be changed for the rest of the experiment.The gooimum and tokenish surge heights are measure by the oscillations and the time amid the gate valves is quickly closed. The same procedure is repeated but the time taken between the surges passing the datum point is measured.Water HammerFollow the Appendix 8 -1 to set the equipment up. Where the water hammer flow control valve should be fully open and the surge shaft valve is fully closed, then the measurement of the volumetric flow rate will be taken and thus calculate the flow velocity. The volumetric flow rate can be measure using the same procedure as Pipe Surge. Then the fast performing valve is release to stop the flow of water instantaneously causing a pressure caprice to trip up up and down the pipe. This is instantaneous closures which mean closure less than 2L/c, i.e . the valve is closed before a reverberateed wave reaches the valve again, as this will give us the same pressure rise as an instantaneous closure. These pulses are captured on the oscilloscope where we record the average bounty, time initiation and the duration of the pulse. The time relapses between the two pressure transducers are besides recorded.For the second half of this experiment, the oscilloscope setting is changed so that the time base setting is increased to 25ms/div. Once it is set up, the same procedure will be repeated as before. The fast acting valve is release and records the average amplitude value and duration of the pulse for the traces that are on the oscilloscope.DiscussionWhen comparing the values gained data-basedly to the values predicted from the equalitys, tabulated in table 6 -1, it can be observed that the predicted flow rates and the period of oscillation are both quite similar with their experimental values. The tenableness for the slight varia tion in flow rates is partly due to the fact that the compare that we needed to use to find the flow rate had two unknown values in it, Q and hf. The equation that we used wasThe experimental value of clangoural head loss is used so that the predicted flow rate can be calculated. The experimental value of Q is used for calculating the theoretical value for frictional head loss by substituting this value in to the equationHowever this value would have pile up more errors and thusly the value would be further away from the experimental value.From Figure 6 1 the time period is about 8 seconds can be observed, whereas the predicted value is 7.5705 seconds. The discrepancy between the two numbers is most likely to be as a result of compassionate error, when timing the points of scoop and min surge and besides when the surge crosses the datum a time factor needs to be taken into consideration for the time taken between the person saying when to stop the timer and the other person ac tually pressing the button. This time delay could easily explain the half second difference between the two values.When comparing the difference between the experimental and predicted values for maximum surge height, the graduation predicted value is hugely different to the actual value achieved. The reason for this is because the equation gives the max surge from the atmospherics head assuming that there are no losses due to friction, therefore the equation will need to be adjust to take into consideration of the effects of friction.This acts as a correction factor. The reason why it need to be use, because the initial head loss which is due to friction, this is the difference between the unchanging head and the velocity head which is much lower than the static head therefore the initial max amplitude should be taken away.Throughout the effects of friction is important as dealing with a small bore system whereas in reality surge shafts have diams in meters. The effects of frict ion can be put ond negligible, as long as the initial head at the valve is assume the same as at the reservoir. However in the flow frictional losses are comparatively large, this can be seen in the fact that there is a large difference between the static head and velocity head. This is partly due to the small diameter of the pipe, as the friction occurs at the walls and if the diameter of the pipe is small then the area in which the fluid is unaffected by the friction is going to be smaller. In order to take the effects of friction in to account, the equation of the max amplitude must start from the velocity head therefore the head loss due to friction can also be taken into consideration.Water HammerFrom observing Figure 5 -1 the single pressure wave, it varies slightly to the symmetrical smooth square shown as in the Fluid mechanics Lab manual of arms. The pulse shown on the oscilloscope showed an unsymmetrical, rough rectangle. This irregularity of the line is as a result of n ot all the kinetic energy being transferred into potential energy, which is the pressure pulse, and the remaining energy being lost in the form of heat, sound and strain. The strain loss is where the compression of the water tries to expand the pipe, i.e. constant volume therefore change the cross sectional area. The reason of that assumption is the irregular graph as when deriving the equations as assumed that the kinetic energy lost is equal to the energy gained in the form of the pressure pulse, this does not take into consideration the effects of energy losses like heat noise and deformation.In another(prenominal) part of the experiment, the pressure transducer set up halfway along the pipe. i.e. 1.5meters away from the valve this meant there is a time cast out between the first wave and the second wave giving the opportunity to measure the speed of sound in water. Firstly the time lag need to be calculated, using 0.75 per division. In the first set up the time axis for the osc illoscope to 2.5milliseconds per division, therefore the time lag is 1.5 milliseconds. The time lag should roughly be a quarter of the time period, so it is as expected the time lag is 1.5625 milliseconds, which is very close to what experimentally gained therefore suggesting that the value has a slight error but not as significant error that the value cant be used to work out Ce. As a result the value of the time lag in the equation can be usedAn experimental value was given for the speed of sound in the water/pipe system which is 960m/s. This value is used to calculate the time it takes a single pressure pulse to travel a unload circuit of the pipe, in this case 6 meters, and the value is 4.523 milliseconds compared to 6.25 milliseconds from the sketch. The difference between these two values could be due to not reading the number of divisions accurately enough and also where the measure of the period from, both of which could have made the result closer to the result calculated. However the discrepancy might also be due to pulse travel further than it is assumed. For the calculations, assumption is made that it is just travelling the length of the pipe, nonetheless the pulse might travel some distance into the header tank instead of being reflected back at the edge. This would then account for why the measured time period is longer, as it could be travelling further than the 6 meters as assumed.When looking at the table 6 -2 for the water hammer experiment, the predicted and experimental values for the speed of sound in water can be compared, peak pressure and also the duration of the first pulse. There is not much difference the experimental and predicted values of speed of sound in the water/pipe system, this indicates that the experiment went well and that the calculations and therefore the equations used are correct. However there is a significant difference between the peak pressure and also the duration of the pulse, it is quite likely that measure d the duration of the pulse inaccurately as determined a rough value for how many an(prenominal) divisions the period was, likewise with the amplitude of the pulse. Furthermore when calculating the experimental velocity of sound in water the time lag was used as the time in the equation and the time lag again was measured by reading how many divisions it took up and as a consequence was open to human error in reading it.From Figure 5 1 can be observe some(prenominal) reflected pressure waves. When the pulse is reflected as a low pressure wave, the pulse is going lower than the original start point. The pressure wave is actually reaching the vapour pressure of water and as a consequence the water is boiling and evaporating creating bubbles, this causes a vacuum to be created thus slowing down the pulse. The energy created from the boiling water soon dissipates and when there are not enough bubbles to slow down the pulse then a second pulse starts and the whole process repeats itse lf. The fact that the pulse is slowed down in the pressure trough by the vacuum and bubbles means that the pulses are not symmetrical.Studying the Figure 5 1 more closely, on the second pulse wave there is a small empale half way between the first pulse and the second pulse can be observe, this could be due to a number of reasons but the most likely is that it is the pulse that has been reflected back from the back of the promontory tank. Ideally the experiment would be set up such that the header tank has a salient enough change in volume and pressure compared to the pipe that it would act as a discontinuity and reflect the pulse back straight away. However in this case some of the pulse could be being reflected from the back wall of the header tank. This would also explain why there is a difference between some of our experimental and predicted results for the speed of sound in water, as we could be assuming that the distance traveled by the pulse is slightly shorter than it travelled in reality, thus having different values when calculating C. The reason why the amplitudes of the pulse wave are not symmetrical is partly due to the vaporisation of the water and also as a consequence of friction, as the flow is slowed the frictional head loss also reduces and so the head at the valve increases to the equilibrium position of the static head, that is why the amplitudes converges towards the static equilibrium can be observe.ConclusionsIn conclusion, the results between theoretical and experimental were similar and close to each other. However, the slight discrepancies might due to human error, e.g. not recording the time as accurately and also the effects of friction will need to be taken in consideration. Therefore if the experiment is repeated to get better accuracy for the result can be more reliable to use.ReferencesFluid Mechanics Laboratory ManualLevel 1 and 2 notes on unsteady flowDouglas JF, Gasiorek JM and Swaffield JA, Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed, Pr entice Hall, 2001. (ISBN 0582414768)Massey, B, Mechanics of Fluids, 8th ed, Taylor Francis, 2006 (ISBN 0-415-36206)http//www.valmatic.com/pdfs/SurgeControlPumpingSystems.pdfhttp//ksbpak.com/pdfs/waterhammer.pdf

The Democratic Peace Theory

The Democratic Peace conjectureThe primary claim of participatory two-eyed violet proponents is that democratic states do non wage state of war against each new(prenominal)1. This possibleness is based on the findings of Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. In his findings Kant argues that the natural evolution of world governing activity and economics would drive mankind inexorably toward counterinsurgency by nub of a widening of the pacific union of bad republican states.2 match to Kants theory liberal republics insure that the state interests are transferred from single sovereign to the society so making wars less probable. This assumption can be explained by a notion that in democratic societies the decision of waging wars is transferred from a monarch to the average citizen who bears the costs of war. Furthermore, the interdependence amidst national interests and citizens self-interests establishes a tendency of placing ultimate authority in the hands of th e average voter3 thus reducing the chance for well-institutionalized democracies to fight wars against each other.Michael Doyle in his publication Kant, resistant Legacies, and irrelevant Affairs adds another principle of pacification to Kants list of triad definitive articles of liberal constitutions. According to Doyle The regular rotation of office in liberal democratic polities is a nontrivial device that helps ensure that personal animosities among heads of government provide no lasting, escalating source of tension4. The inner state check and residual system does not exclude the probability of war between states, notwithstanding instead it explains that liberal wars are only fought for popular, liberal purposes5.Accordingly, most rough-cut argument of democratic peace theory is the constitutional and legal restraints on executive action. In other words placing constraints on the ability of leaders to fight other democracies are the foundations of peace in democratic stat es.The democratic peace theory also suggests that Democracy tends to foster economic interdependence, which reduces the likelihood of war. Firstly, it is more likely for countries who share the same values, to have close economic ties with each other. The economic interdependence significantly reduces the probability of confrontation between states. The preponderance of systematic evidence for at least the post-World War II era, however, suggests that mutual economic interdependence, measured as the share of dyadic championship to GNP in the country where that trade is proportionately smaller, is strongly associated with calm relations in subsequent years.6 In other words, economic interdependence helps create transnational ties that promote peace rather than conflict. Furthermore, states have a mutual benefit from the economic relations and conflict with each other is going to harm their economy. Thus, the potential loss of trade and its negative adjoin on countries critical imp orts or exports decreases the willingness of both sides to fight.Based on historical evidence, despite the liberal claim that democracies have never gone to war with each other, there have been more conflicts than instances of cooperation situation which provides a deep ground for naive realism to flourish. Up until the end of the Cold War realism was the dominant theory of international relations as it explained most of the policy-making events. However, after the end of the Cold War started crisis of realism due to the dower that it failed to predict or predicted wrongly several events, especially the unification of Germany (October 1990), play of Warsaw Pact (July 1991) and the end of Cold War ( licentiousness of USSR December 1991). no(prenominal) of this events resolved in a hegemonic war as many realist predicted. It seems as if other theory such as democratic peace theory is better at explaining the events after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The democratic peac e theory gives a logical explanation of the events which lead to peaceful dissolution of Soviet Union and end of the Cold War. Any understanding of the pitch in the Soviet Unions international behavior, before its political fragmentation, and in epoch reciprocated by the West, demands attention to the three legs on which the liberal vision of Immanuel Kants lasting Peace Stands. This stands are 1. Development of Liberalization and democratization process in Soviet Union 2. Desire to enter western markets rise of sparing interdependence and 3. influence of the International organizations.As Emmanuel Kant has predicted in his findings the natural evolution of world politics and economics would drive mankind inexorably toward peace by means of a widening of the pacific union of liberal republican states.7 Democracy, economic interdependence and international organizations constitute the basis of the twenty-first century international relations.1 Edward D.Mansfield and Jack Snyder, Democratization and the Danger of War, P82 Michael W. Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, Part 2, p3493 Edward D.Mansfield and Jack Snyder, Democratization and the Danger of War, P214 Michael W. Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, p.2305 ib.6 Bruce Russet, a neo-Kantian perspective democracy, interdependence, and international organizations in building security communities, earnest Communities, Cambridge University Press, P.3747 Michael W. Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, Part 2, p349

Modern society in the UK and Saudi Arabia

novel caller in the UK and Saudi ArabiaModern society has legion(predicate) definitions and this essay bequeath introduce one of them, It is a society indicated that akin modern about a basis of age, or technological and accessible or indeed anything else. Moreover, is the modern period of the true world different to that of the less developed world .(Llexperts)Saudi Arabia and the united terra firma have mistakableities in modern society much(prenominal) as the Monarchy and differences in modern society much(prenominal) as the culture. Also, they have differences and similarities in juvenility culture, social eudaemonia, inner practice roles, and population and I will mark them later in the chief(prenominal) body for this essay.I have chosen this topic beca subprogram I am learninging in the unify estate and I want learn and research to a greater extent about the modern society in the UK and I will comp atomic number 18 modern society in the UK and Saudi Arabi a.First of all, will be go againstn breeding about the youth culture in Saudi Arabia and the UK such(prenominal) as what the young hoi polloi prefer of clothes, sport, carsetc.Secondly, compare and evaluate the social welfare such as education, social programme, hospital. In the UK and Saudi Arabia.Finally, the gender roles in the UK and Saudi Arabia what job they prefer and what the opportunity for them in the future. digestIn youth culture convey what distinguishes human rights as an objective lens sane thinker develops ideas and knowledge by thinking and experiences and learn from others, and of the basal instincts shared by human and animal is jealous of assembly youth culture in general Indicates to the ways of young slew such as teens differentiate themselves from the general culture of their community.There are many differences and similarities mingled with the youth culture in the UK and the KSA. The main difference amidst the young passel in the UK and the KSA is that in the UK most of young people go by the time at the weekend in the pop or club with the friends while in the KSA most of young people spend the time with the family and friends in the house, beach, and coffee shop. That mean the crime is increase in the UK at the weekend because the young people were drunk and did behave badly whereas in the KSA better and they will do behave well.(BBC)Young people in the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia are similar in that they have interestedfor sport, harmonise to, (Haynes, R. 1995). Says that The Football Imagination is the first in-depth study of football game fanzine (fan magazine) culture, contributing to the extensive body of knowledge on the football industry which has developed over the past 25 years in the UK and Europe As will as sporting, United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia are similar in hurt of slang, More importantly, they share the same cultural beliefs. But maybe this custom butt joint be movement for the Arabic and Engli sh language because nobody provoke be use the old language and maybe the people has forgotten it besides postulate the language difficult for the people who need to learn other language. sex mean that eliminating gender disparity, or otherwise potentiometercel the impact of biologic differences between the sexes and to pr compensatet without taking into account those differences when dealing with the distribution of roles and functions between the sexes where indicates that the concept of gender roles that have been classified social impact of the community.(moheet). jibe to faqs says that What is potent? What is pistillate? Your answers to these questions may depend on the types of gender roles you were undetermined to as a child. grammatical gender roles can buoy be defined as the deportments and attitudes expected of male and female members of a society by that society.Gender roles vary. Different cultures impose different expectations upon the men and women who live in that culture. The United States has experienced tremendous upheaval and revising of its traditional gender roles in the last generation. These changes in gender roles affect the home, the workplace, and the school, and they affect all Americans to approximately degree.There are many differences and similarities between the gender roles in the UK and the KSA.The main difference between the daughter in the UK and KSA is that in the UK, the missy can produce a car, whereas in the KSA the girl can not drift as well. But may be in the future the girl will drive because there are no differences between the girl and men also according to the king Abdullah says women well be drive a car in future in the KSA nearly.While the people in the UK male and female can work together as a one team, the people in the KSA male and female can not work together unless in the specific job such as the bank or the companies. Because the culture in the KSA it does not make that. Even though, mix gen der in work has some advantages for example, will increase competition with the other, the women will try to prove their presence in the work, and the man will be interested in appearance and dressed, whenever he went to his job. Also, mix gender in the work has some disadvantages such as Sexual torment. tally to ( Hinsliff,G. 2006) says A hidden world of informal harassment, with female managers exploiting their power over men in the office, has been unveiled by a new governance survey. Despite the common stereotype of the male executive putting pressure on his secretary, two in five victims of sexual harassment are men, the study found. A quarter of the men questioned in the Department of Trade and Industry survey reported being crucify by a client whom they also felt obliged to please. According to the Equal Opportunities Commission, 8 per cent of calls to its sexual harassment helpline are from men, even though research shows male victims are less likely than women to compl ain. It insists that male complaints should be taken just as seriously. It affects both women and men, causing stress, wellness problems and fiscal penalties when they leave their jobs to avoid it, s uphold Jenny Watson, chair of the EOC. Legally, sexual harassment is defined not just as lecherous behavior such as groping, but as any form of obloquy of workers because of their sex. Male victims were more likely than women to complain of the second kind of harassment where a female manager treats women more favorably than men or criticizes male employees more regularly .As well as women can not drive in the KSA, UK and KSA are differences in the facility for the women such as sport the women in the KSA they do not have selection to play sport where as in the UK they can play. Football, rugby, and swimming.Welfare mean that the range of efforts made by the State through it is institutions, and members of the community through the efforts of volunteers to achieve social welfare and h ousing programs include social protective covering and child aid.etc. Also, the social welfare mean the Pattern of serve the organization that are submitted by families or the countries or voluntary organizations to impede or improve the social conditions.( ejtemay)According to wikipedia says Welfare or welfare work consists of actions or procedures especially on the part of governments and institutions striving to win the basic well-being of individuals in need. These efforts usually strive to improve the financial situation of people in need but may also strive to improve their employment chances and many other aspects of their lives including sometimes their psychological health. In many countries, most such aid is provided by family members, relatives, and the topical anaesthetic community and is only theoretically available from government sources. In American English, welfare is often also used to refer to financial aid provided to individuals in need, which is call ed benefit(s) or welfare benefits in British English. Welfare can take a variety of forms, such as monetary applyments, subsidies and vouchers, health services, or housing. Welfare can be provided by governments, non-governmental organizations, or a combination of the two. Welfare schemes may be funded directly by governments, or in social insurance models, by the members of the welfare scheme .UK and KSA are dissimilar in education, especially with fee. Students in KSA can study without pay anything, whereas students in UK have paid for that. According to wikipedia.org says Undergraduates pay up to 3000 per annum (capped) in top-up fees and Postgraduates typically pay 3000 per annum however some institutions charge more ,while students in KSA have got monthly allowance from government to encourage them.(moe) health dish out system in the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia are similar in that they have good health care system according to Wikipedia.org says Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, meaning England, blue Ireland, Scotland and Wales each has its own system of private and publicly-funded healthcare, together with alternative, holistic and complementary treatments. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is salvage at the pinnacle of need being paid for from general taxation. Taken together, the World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world. Also, KSA has good health care system according to www.moh.gov.sa says The positions of access or the health of the population of Saudi Arabia to the fullest extent possible and the best in terms of justice and equality in care and in terms of effectiveness and the possibility of carrying the financial burden of treatment and health care and to work in order to reach the level of the consumer to satisfy his ambitions, by providing this special home health services and the public with a naughty level of quality and services to cover the entire populationFinally, there are differences between the UK and KSA for the housing that the UK support the people whereas the KSA it does not. According to summon Richard (2231999) says that In 1900 around 10 per cent of housing was owner engaged and 90 per cent was rented from privet landlords and in 1995 , 77 per cent dwelling in the UK were either owner occupied or rented from privet landlords ConclusionThe most big feature that British government help the British people more than Saudis government but some of the young people did not care. Also, the UKs government help the people by give them houses as a free whereas the Saudis government did not do it. The KSA government support the students by give them scholarships to study outside the country at about 20000 students in the UK and 40000 students in the USA also in Canada, Australia, Japan, France, China, Spain, New Zealand, Germany, and Malaysia at about 150000 students . (moe)

Nat Traversal For Video Streaming Applications Information Technology Essay

Nat Traversal For ikon cyclosis Applications Information Technology EssayVideo blow is con situationring one of the famous technologies which is routined today. It provides the ability to playback photograph files remotely through computer electronic meshings. The demand for this technology is rapidly increasing every(prenominal) overdue to wide spread of earnings and increasing of the ne iirk bandwidth1While HTTP communications communications protocol uses one transmission give protocol port at the enthr totally grade, RTP support use m whatever ports. RTP give the bounce use UDPs or transmission control protocols ports at the transport horizontal surface dep destinationing on how much the tract path is concedeed from mail boat loss 2. In low sheafs loss environment, the use of RTP over UDP protocol is preferable, since in media cyclosis, the teeny ratio of megabuckss loss better than big moneys delay. Hence, the higher reliability of the transmission contro l protocol is non desired3. UDP/RTP has alike the multicasting feature and has the ability to deal with real time communication due to its features in bandwidth, jitter, reliability and end nodes kneading.RTP/transmission control protocol potty precedent the moving picture cyclosis to suffer from discontinuity because the need to retransmission and re hosteling the packets, whereas RTP/UDP can suffer from dropping the packets by some filters (firewalls) in the Internet Service provider (ISPs). Some ISPs drop UDP packets because they ar attributeionless hence unfair against transmission control protocol occupation. They also need high processing power and memory to ensure security measures 4. But the primary(prenominal) issue that can occur is when using the RTP with the lucre Address Translation (NAT). NAT drops any RTP/UDP or RTP/transmission control protocol packets that are initialized from the orthogonal (Internet) when accounting entry to the end- forms (behind th e NAT).The NAT is a technology that permits many computers on the similar net income to share a public Internet Protocol (IP) address for accessing the Internet. The briny campaign behind the wide spread of using the NAT is the limited upshot of the available IPv4 addresses 5.The use of RTP/UDP or RTP/transmission control protocol tv set be adrift is started with a transmission control protocol link that is established by a pick up from the knob to the master of ceremonies, after initial negotiation using the RTSP protocol on the same established transmission control protocol melodic phrase, the host starts video streaming through UDP or transmission control protocol ports initialized from the boniface not through the professional RTSP/transmission control protocol convey 2.The NAT permits to pass the vanquish connections passs from a host behind the NAT into the out case ne twainrk (like Internet) 6, however it does not permit to pass any connection request from the outside network (like Internet) to any host behind the NAT 7. This is because the translation carry over entry is constructed only when a thickening (behind the NAT) initializes a request to connect to a host on the outside network (Internet) 8, 9. If the initialized request came from a host on the outside network of the NAT into the at heart network, the NAT cannot identify the cultivation host for this request and the connection mingled with the outside host and the inside one cannot be occur 8, 10. Regarding to the RTP/UDP video streaming, the NAT will not entrust the UDP video streaming conduct to pass to the client behind the NAT, since the RTP/UDP channels are initially established from the waiter (on the Internet).Considering the RTP weakness points, the HTTP protocol, is the preferable pickax for video streaming. However, HTTP protocol also has known weakness points the exploiter can suffer from quality reduction and playback discontinuity due to the probing behav iour of transmission control protocol protocol. This can also cause an oscillating throughput and slow recovery of the packet rate.In contrast, the UDP protocol provides a mean to keep the desired send rate constant. It also keeps streaming smooth and eliminates the TCP related processing.This composing presents a novel panache to apply the benefits of both TCP and UDP. The proposed method enables NAT traverse by converting each RTP/UDP and RTCP/UDP packet into fake TCP packet just originally being sent (at data joining layer) by adding a fictional TCP header to begin with each UDP video streaming packet and making the necessary modifications to the length and checksums fields.These fabricated TCP packets will pass the NAT, since they will be transmitted on the channel (IP, TCP port) that firstly initialized (RTSP/TCP channel) by the client behind the NAT. In this written report, this channel is called the active channel.The receiver, on the other side has to restore the real UDP packet in front being processed by the corresponding transport layer. The restoration is found on a specific touch modality. In order to restore the packets, every fabricated TCP packet has to have a known signature. Depending on that signature, the receiver will restore the original packet. alone of the previous changes are performed at the data link layer.The rest of this paper is organized as follows section II, looks at some related work. In section III, the proposed methodology and algorithm are presented. In section IV, the experiments of the enforced proposed method and its discussions are described. In section V, the evaluation of the proposed method and comparisons amongst the proposed method and the existing technologies are presented. The paper is concluded is section VI. think workLimited to our knowledge, no many similar works are presented. However, 4 present a method to overcome the RTP/UDP issues by putting a representative server amid the client a nd the streaming server (at the world-wide network). The proxy receives a HTTP request (TCP) from the client and translates it to a RTSP/RTP request to the server (TCP+UDP). The proxy has two different connections (one for the client and the other for the streaming serve). The main function of the proxy is to translate the HTTP streaming protocol into RTSP/RTP streaming protocol. This can overcome the NAT problem due to that the HTTP request (TCP) is initialized by the client and the tell will pass through the same TCP port. However a third gubbins is needed. In addition it is still using the constraints of the TCP between the proxy and the client (e.g. retransmission and reordering etc) (in addition to the increase of traffic to the network). Another issue is that there are too many operations in order to convert a complete application protocol into another one. Beside, this method loses the real time property that is needed for end to end communication because all the packets m ush be forwarded at the proxy server.Proposed MethodologyIn this work, both the client and the server are untrue to convert all the RTP/UDP streaming packets into fabricated TCP packets that can be sent to the other side using the active channel.This fabrication process which is implemented for Windows Operating System (OS) requires a full control of the incoming/outgoing packets. However, there is the issue of solution code of the TCP/IP (non open source for Windows OS) is not readily accessible and Windows does not accommodate the manipulation of the packets in any TCP/IP protocol suite from level higher up the TCP/IP number one wood layer.To overcome the inaccessibility issue, a drawing card technique is use in order to control the (frame/packet) at the point that links between the protocol driver and the NIC fare(s), which is represent by the Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS).Hooking is a technique that can convert the calling of one operating schema functi on into a new one that in turn calls the original one. The new function can do extra job before moving the execution to the original. This can be done without the need for the source code of the original 11.The proposed facultys is implemented and run in windows user mode. When the faculty can hook the NDIS, it can monitor, control, add, and modify the NDIS incoming/outgoing packets easily.The NDIS-Hooking driver butt ins itself between TCP/IP and all of the adapters that bind with it as shown in figure (1). prognosticate 1. NDIS hooking driver with relation to user modeWhen TCP/IP sends a packet, it reaches the NDIS-Hooking driver (as a frame) before displace to the adapter. Likewise, packets that are to be indicated (received) on TCP/IP will go to the NDIS-Hooking driver first.The fabricated TCP header is inserted/deleted in the data link frame, this means that the original RTP/UDP protocol is used without modification. Nonetheless the fabricated packets can still bypass the N AT as au henceticated ones. strain 2. Proposed frame complex body partAs these extra bytes (fabricated TCP header) will add when the packet is in the data link layer, this may cause the packet to exceed the uttermost Transfer Unit (MTU) of the network. Since, no packet must exceed the maximal Transfer Unit (MTU) of the network 12, 13, therefore, the senders MTU must be decreased by length of the fabricated TCP header length (20 bytes).The whole proposed administration is composed of two main modules. The first module resides on the streaming client while the second resides on the streaming server. Figure (3) shows the video streaming network network topology.Figure 3. Video streaming network topologyEach module consists of the following percentagesA component (hooking function in Fig. 1) that makes the access to the frame at the data link layer. This component accesses the frames in data link layer which is in the kernel mode and moves it into the user mode and vice versa.A co mponent that finds the required frame based on its content. This component extracts the specified packets from the frames which have to be changed (fabricated/restored) depending on send direction (income/outcome).A component that makes the required modifications (fabricating/restoring) to the regulate packets. This component changes the predetermined packets depending the move direction (send/receive). In sending, the component changes the RTP/UDP packet into fabricated TCP packet. In receiving, the component restores the fabricated TCP packet into its original RTP/UDP content. This component also re-computes length and checksums.Client Side ModuleAs mentioned earlier, the module has to access the kernel (at data link layer). This is done by accessing the NDIS driver. The module listens until a packet event has occurred. There are two potential scenariosIncoming packet If the packet is coming from the streaming server, then the platform will look for the TCP that contains an RTS P packet. If this RTSP packet contains both the clients and servers streaming ports, then record this connections stateation into an array. This is happened figurely at the setup phase of the RTSP connection. by and by (when the RTP packet used), the client will check every TCP packet if it contains a specified signature. If this signature is raised (in the TCP header), this mean that this TCP packet is fabricated and it contains the original RTP/UDP packet. The program will remove the TCP header and recomputed the UDP and IP checksums. All these step are done before sending the packet to the rest of TCP/IP protocol lotOutgoing packet If the packet is outgoing to the streaming server and the outgoing packet was a RTP/UDP packet, then insert a new fabricated TCP header before the UDP header. This fabricated TCP header contains the TCP connection information taken from the appropriate record from an array containing all streaming connections details. This TCP header also contains a specified signature that has to been recognized from the streaming server in order to return the packet back to its original RTP/UDP packet. This operation also needs to recompute the checksums. All these steps are done before sending the packet to the adapter. Figure 4 shows the flowchart of client side module.Figure 4. Flowchart of the client side moduleServer Side ModuleIn server side module, steps similar to the client are also implemented. The difference is that the system gets the RTSP connections details from the outgoing TCP packet instead of incoming TCP packet in the client. Figure (5) shows the flowchart of the main steps of the server module.Figure 5. Flowchart of the server side moduleExperiments and discussionsExperiments SetupIn this experiment, we use three PCs test windows XP. Two PCs with one LAN card (client and the server). The other PC (working as a NAT) contains two LAN cards.RedMug streaming server commercial software is used on the server site. The VLC med ia sham (version 1.0.5) is used on the client side. The VLC media player is set to use the RTSP protocol by giving a URL of one movie on the streaming server. The proposed method (client and server modules) is implemented in VC++.Net Framework and it is running in windows OS environment in user mode. A windows device driver (Windows Packet Filter Kit winpkfilter 3.0 from NT Kernel Resources, http//www.ntkernel.com) is used for the hooking purpose.Experimental Results and DiscussionIn the first experiment (before using the proposed method), the client tries to access the movie on the streaming server using the above system configuration. The connections establishment and the video streaming negotiations between the client and the server are established normally. However, the connection fails at the stage of data streaming transformation (see Fig. 6).Figure 6. Connection breakdown when data streaming transforming began (server side)The reason for the success of the low-level formatt ing of the client-server connection and all the negotiations needed to transfer the video streaming are that the connection request is a TCP and the initialization is coming from the client (behind the NAT) and the video streaming negotiations are done by the RTSP that uses the active channel. However, the client could not receive the video streaming data since the NAT dropped the RTP/UDP video streaming packets. The client then sends a teardown command to inform the server that the negotiation is over. The client starts one additional negotiation tries before it close the connection.In the second experiment, we used the proposed clients and server modules. After running, the two modules start monitoring the data link frames. The client monitors the outgoing streaming request while the server monitors the incoming streaming request.When the client request a video streaming from the server, The connections establishment and the video streaming negotiations between the client and the server are established normally and the client starts to presentation the video streaming data as shown if figure (7A and 7B).FEATUREHTTPRTP/TCPRTP/UDPPROPOSED METHODDirectionalBidirectionalBidirectionalUniaryUniaryPlayback hiccupsYesYesNoNo step ReductionsYesYesNoNoOscillating throughputYesYesNoNoSlow recoveryYesYesNoNoISP firewallTraverseTraverseBlockedTraverseNAT crosspieceYesNoNoYesEnd-to-End DelayLongLong before longShortWindow buffer and reorderingYesYesNoNoStreaming methodDownloading or progressiveStreamingStreamingStreamingFigure 7A. Connection still active when the data streaming are transforming (server side)Figure 8B. Video streaming is displayed in the client (behind the NAT)When negotiation is captured, the host records the connection details IP, TCP port and the streaming UDP ports. The host will insert the fabricated TCP header (after the UDP header) in the video streaming packet before sending it.The reason for the success of transforming the streaming data is that the sending host converts each streaming UDP packet into a fabricated TCP packet that bypasses the NAT because it uses the active channel. The receiving host in turn restores the fabricated TCP packet into the UDP streaming data at the data link layer before sending it to the upper layer.EvaluationA comparison between our proposed method and the existing technologies is presented in Table 1. The proposed method has several advantages over the existing technologies, although the new packet size is 20 bytes larger than the normal RTP/UDP packet, but less compared with the HTTP. This has a little impact on the network performance.The proposed method can traverse the video streaming over all types of NAT. It can also traverse the firewall that blocks the UDP ports that RTP may use, common with home Internet portal. Streaming might fail at times even if the gateway has a built-in RTSP NAT.Reference 4 utilizes the two streaming protocols separately by using a third device (proxy) betwee n the client and server (every side with whole streaming protocol advantages and disadvantages), the proposed method utilizes the benefits of the RTP and HTTP protocols without using any extra device.Table I. CURRENT AND PROPOSED METHOD COMPARISONConclusionThe two main transport layer protocols TCP and UDP can be used in streaming but with the whole advantages and disadvantages of using that protocol. In this paper, a new method is presented and implemented that can merge some advantages of both protocols. It enables the client and server to use UDP advantages in each side for streaming. twain client and server gains scalability by not having to deal with some TCP processing feature (e.g. Acknowledgement and window buffering etc). In the other hand, utilize the benefit of the TCP advantages to traverse the NAT and the firewall. In other words, the stream is not discarded and traverses the NAT and the firewall. The experimental results show that the new method achieves the firewall traversal and Nat traversal even with the most difficult NAT (symmetric NAT).

Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes

Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes lap up prove is a signifi rottert problem in the industry. This article explains striving as claims of the line of products and a person inability to meet those beseechs. centering weed be twain(prenominal) overconfident and invalidating. This look into has examined the overconfident and negative effects of focussing. For substantiating tenseness term Eu show is used and for negative stress the term excruciation is used. This is a study of mavin hundred and cardinal intravenous feeding employees from three New Zealand organizations about stressful give out- furbish upd proceedss, its effect on mental surgical procedure and moral of the employees. Un like separate studies this question has as advantageously as cogitate on dogmatic exits of the stress if stress is effectually fightd. Cognitive assessment de scale of esteemment(CAS) was used for primary estimate. The job related potent well macrocosm scale ( jaws ) was used to measure the apprisal of the employees with their job. Factors which were identified as heading strategies for stress were systematic problem solving, hearty concur, dictatorial reappraisal, self-controlling, confronted bed, contend-avoidance, accepting indebtedness, and distancing. With respect to our enquiry from this article we can strike that stress can be both compulsory eustress and negative bother. From this research we can identify many variables like Organizational and situational variables such as managerial style and support, grow control, organisational grow and employment stability atomic number 18 likely to relate on employees stress. Individual passing variables such as anxiety personality fictional character and optimism/pessimism in addition take up how an employee takes stress.Article Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes of occupational StressMuch research over the last decade has emphasised the negative consequences o f excessive work-related demands on an individuals animal(prenominal) and mental wellness and wellbeing. darn on that point is as yet no iodine agreed-upon definition of stress, the vex research defines it as a kindred surrounded by the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing and endangering his or her well-being (Lazarus Folkman, 1984, p19). occupational stress arises from demands put throughd in the working environment that hazard how one functions at work or outside work.Past research has predominantly focus on the negative aspects of stress. This is not surprising given the record impacts of stress on health, wellbeing and work-related doing. However the absolute psychology consummation proposes that, instead of focusing on human pathology, research attention should alike be commited towards positive health, growth and wellbeing (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It has been argued that stress is a part of life and cannot be avo ided, and that stress can dissolving agent in beneficial outcomes as well as negative ones (Selye, 1973, 1974). If negotiated appropriately, stress can be energizing, stimulating and growth producing for the individual as abilities argon pro hankered and new accomplishments made (Quick, Nelson, Quick, 1990). There is increasing interest in the effectiveness for positive outcomes from the stress run including stress-related growth and positive personal changes (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004 Somerfield McCrae, 2000). If a stressful situation is resolved successfully then positive, rather than negative, emotions whitethorn predominate but there is a need for further to identify the stress-related branches associated with positive and negative emotions (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004). Good health encompasses more than than just avoiding illness it also involves the attainment of positive wellness, turned on(p), intellectual, spiritual, occupational, accessible and physical (Nelson Si mmons, 2003, p 98). Acknowledging the positive response to the stress process may impact on how stress in the workplace is managed. tribulation and EustressThe term eustress was coined by Selye to denote the positive aspects of stress in contrast to distress fend foring the negative aspects (Selye, 1974). Other important writers produce also suggested that stress is not inherently maladaptive ( hart, 2003 Hart Cotton, 2002 Karasek, 1979 Lazarus, 1999 Lazarus Folkman, 1984 Tedeschi Calhoun, 2004). In the context of the workplace, stressful events can lead to perceptions of positive wellbeing (Campbell-Quick, Cooper, Nelson, Quick, Gavin, 2003 Nelson Simmons, 2003). However although many researchers have look intod distress, eustress has been neglected until recently. Eustress is defined as a positive psychological response to a stressor as asseverated by the bearing of positive psychological evinces. Distress (or stress in keeping with customary terminology) is a negati ve psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states (Simmons Nelson, 2001).Simmons and Nelson (2001) found eustress and distress to be trenchant by emotional state. Hope, meaningfulness and positive affect were evidentiary indicators of eustress (Nelson Simmons, 2003). Meaningfulness is the extent to which work appears to make sense emotionally and to be worth investing travail in. Hope is the belief that one has both the volition and the way to succeed. realm positive affect reflects a condition of pleasurable engagement, energy and enthusiasm. Eustress was also associated with problem engagement or absorption (Campbell-Quick et al., 2003 Rose, 1987). Task engagement denotes being enthusiastically involved in and pleasurably occupied by the demands of the work at knock over (Nelson Simmons, 2003, p 103). This is similar to the concept of flow (Campbell-Quick et al., 2003) in which people ar so actively involved in the t ask that nothing else seems to matter (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Distress on the other hand is indicated by negative work attitudes and psychological states such as negative affect, anger, job alienation and frustration (Simmons, Nelson, Neal, 2001). Eustress is similar to the concept of morale defined as the energy, enthusiasm, team spirit and pride that employees experience as a gist of their work (Hart Cotton, 2002, p. 102). Distress and eustress/ morale are not mutually exclusive they can occur simultaneously in response to the same demand and are likely to result from different processes (Hart, 2003 Hart Cotton, 2002).The stress processThere is at to the lowest degree some consensus that stress should be seen as a process or interaction between demands and the individuals ability to the great unwashed with them (Sulsky Smith, 2005). maven conceptualization of this process is the cognitive-transactional role model (Lazarus, 1966). The focus of this model is on individual and situational factors that interact with the appraisal of demands to produce outcomes (McGowan, 2004 Sulsky Smith, 2005).Antecedents to EustressThe transactional model considers stress to be a process involving appraisals of curse or altercate (primary appraisal), move (secondary appraisal) and reappraisal. elemental appraisal involves a decision as to whether a demand ( dominance stressor) is both relevant and stressful in that it is seen to represent a potential nemesis to the individuals goals, beliefs or expectations (Lazarus, 1966 Lazarus, 1999). Demands can also be appraised as irrelevant or relevant but benign. A demand appraised as irrelevant or as benign (offering the chance to preserve or enhance wellbeing) does not initiate the stress process as there is no potential curse to overcome (Lazarus, 1999). If a demand is appraised as relevant and stressful then further appraisal takes place. Stressful appraisals include an appraisal of threat or loss, where the individ ual perceives the demand as exceeding the resources available to cope with it but also of argufy, when resources are high relative to the demand and there is potential for mastery and personal growth (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Threat and challenge appraisals represent distinct constructs and are associated with different patterns of physiological arousal (Quigley, Barrett, Weinstein, 2002 Tomaka, 1993 Tomaka, Blascovich, Kibler, Ernst, 1997) innate experience of strain and affect (Maier, Waldstein, Synowski, 2003), deal expectancies and implementation (Boswell, OlsonBuchanan, LePine, 2004 Skinner Brewer, 2002). Threat and challenge appraisals represent distinct constructs and can occur simultaneously (Lazarus Folkman, 1984).Whether a challenge or threat was initially appraised, in order to reduce the demand some form of coping action is taken (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Coping responses are influenced by initial appraisals. Challenge appraisals have been associated with more use of problem-focused coping (Bjorck Cohen, 1993 McCrae, 1984) while threat appraisals were linked to more emotion-focused coping (McCrae, 1984). While some coping research has linked emotion focussed coping with an growing in distress, the effectiveness of any particular coping strategy depends on its appropriateness (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004 Lazarus Folkman, 1984).Hypothesis 1 Challenge appraisals will be positively associated with task-focused coping.Hypothesis 2 Threat appraisals will be positively associated with emotion-focused coping. query has predominantly focussed on negative outcomes and has solo recently admit that positive emotion can arise in stressful situations as a result of effective coping. Coping responses such as relaxation, direct action/task focussed coping and positive reappraisal can lead to the experience of ontogenyd positive affect while out or keeping(p) or maladaptive coping responses may lead to negative affective reactions (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004). Eustress is not s incriminate the result of a positive experience with positive events. It arises from effective negotiation of the stress process rather than a process of passive savouring (Simmons, Nelson, Quick, 2003).Hypothesis 3 Eustress will be positively associated with task-focused coping.Hypothesis 4 Distress will be positively associated with emotion-focused coping.Outcomes of EustressEustress has been shown to have a positive impact on subjective as well as objective surgical operation (Skinner Brewer, 2002 Tomaka, 1993), possibly as a result of the outgrowthd motivation provided by task engagement.Hypothesis 5 Eustress will be positively associated with satisfaction with the outcomes of the stress process.Hypothesis 6 Distress will be negatively associated with satisfaction with the outcomes of the stress process.Over the long term eustress may result in positive changes in wellbeing, growth, flexibility, adaptability and performance (Quick et al., 1990), whil e distress may give rise to the stress outcomes unremarkably discussed in everyday language, for example the negative effects on physical and psychological wellbeing. Simmons and Nelson (2001) found that eustress was related to positive perceptions of health among nurses. Edwards and Cooper (1988), in a review of research on the effects of positive psychological states on health, found that positive psychological states produced an improvement in health both directly through physiological processes and indirectly by facilitating coping with stress (Edwards Cooper, 1988). Although long-term outcomes are beyond the scope of the present study, an increase in motivation, work performance and positive work-related affective states may also increase long-term job satisfaction.MethodThree New Zealand organizations participated in the study. These were a public sector organization where fulltime administrative, clerical and counselling roles predominated a retail business with part-time and full-time roles and a University department including fulltime teaching, research and administrative roles. Response rates for the three organizations were 52% (85 responses), 44% (26 responses) and 34% (33 responses) respectively.Participants were 74 males (51%) and 67 females (47%). Ages jogd from 18 (11%) less than 21 years, 50 (35%) between 21 and 36 years, 54 (38%) between 37 and 55 years, and 21 (25%) above 55 years in age. Three respondents did not indicate age or gender. The mean time respondents had spent within their period organization was six and a half years (SD = 7.32). There were significant differences between the three organizations still on tenure (F(2,132)= 15.62, pMeasures onward answering the questions on appraisals and coping, participants were asked to identify one specific stressful event they had recently experienced at work and to answer the questions in relation to that event.Primary appraisals were assessed by the eight-item Cognitive Appraisal Sca le (CAS Skinner Brewer, 2002). quadruplet questions each related to threat and challenge appraisals. Question both was reworded to relate to a work setting (grade changed to outcome) and all questions were given in the gone tense to indicate an event that had already been encountered. Although the CAS assesses both relative frequency and flashiness for each item, no difference in responses were found between frequency and intensity measures (Skinner Brewer, 2002) and so were replaced by a six-point scale where 1 = powerfully disagree and 6 = strongly agree.Questionnaire (WCQ) assessed coping strategies used by participants to manage their stressor event (Folkman Lazarus, 1988). The measure assesses actual coping (as opposed to trait coping) by focussing on how the recently experienced event was negotiated. The 66 items of this scale assess eight forms of coping planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, seeking social support, confrontive coping, escape-avoidance, distan cing, self-controlling and accepting responsibility. Coping data were recoded into task-focused and emotion-focused coping as reported below.The traffic Related Affective Wellbeing Scale (JAWS) was used to assess participants emotional reactions to their work (van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, Kelloway, 2000). Participants were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 the degree to which they had experienced 30 different emotions over the past 30 days. As the scale focused on recent emotional experience, it tapped state affect and is a valid representative of immediate stress process responses. The emotional responses covered two dimensions positive/negative affect and arousal. This provided four quadrants negative affect/low arousal (e.g. My job made me smell out bored), negative affect/high arousal (e.g. My job made me palpate anxious), positive affect/low arousal (e.g. my job made me spirit calm), and positive affect/high arousal (e.g. my job made me flavour enthusiastic). Skinner and Br ewer (2002) found an association between threat appraisal and negative active affect (e.g. anxiety) but not negative deactivated affect (e.g. boredom) and between challenge appraisals and positive-active affect (e.g. excitement) but not positive deactivated affect (e.g. calm). Emotions should be considered in terms of both valence and level of energizing (Skinner Brewer, 2002). High-activation affective responses are consistent with the meaning of threat and challenge, or the need to act to avoid failure and its negative consequences on one hand or to achieve success and its bene find outs on the other. For the present research eustress was conceptualised as the positive affect/ high arousal quadrant and distress was conceptualised as the negative affect/ high arousal quadrant of the JAWS.The outcome measure for this study was a single item that asked respondents to rate their level of arrangement with the statement I felt positive about the outcomes of the situation. Responses we re coded so that 1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree. The limitations of this measure were recognised and turn to as far as possible during the data analysis. Performance and other outcome data were not available for this study. To correct for the un reliability of the single outcome indicator the error term was fixed at a specific value (Bollen, 1989). The fixed value was determined by multiplying the dimension of error variance (1 rho) of the indicator by, the variance of the indicator, where rho =.80.Statistical AnalysesA two stage approach was adopted for the data analysis using positive factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM see Anderson Gerbing, 1988 Schumacker Lomax, 1996). floor one involved the building of standard models for each of the measures used in this study. The rationale for building measurement models is that it allows for the best indicators of a construct to be identified and thus provides evidence for validity of the measu re. Given the current strain size it was decided that for the last(a) structural model at least four items for each construct would be used. In essence, this not only increased the subject-variable ratio but also served to identify the most unidimensional set of items to specify a construct. Unidimensionality is an important aspect when exploring structural relationship between various constructs as clear unambiguous measures allow for meliorate predictive validity (Anderson Gerbing, 1988 Schumacker Lomax, 1996).For the CAS a two factor model, challenge and threat, was time-tested with the final model being stipulate with the strongest loadings in each subscale. For the JAWS only two factors were tested, high-pleasure high-arousal, and low-pleasure high-arousal, once more using the best indicators for these hypothesized constructs.For the WCQ a second order measurement model was tested with eight factors planful problem solving (PPS), positive reappraisal (PR), seeking social support (SS) self-controlling (SC), confrontive coping (C), distancing (D), accepting responsibility (AR) and escape avoidance (EA). The four best hold upting items were used to specify each factor (Anderson Gerbing, 1988). For the full structural model two higher(prenominal)-order factors (task-focused and emotion-focused coping) were specified using subscale scores as observed indicators. Task-focused coping strategies were planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, seeking social support and self-controlling. Emotion-focused coping strategies were confrontive coping, distancing, accepting responsibility and escape avoidance.Having identified the measurement models for each factor a structural model was specified using the hypotheses stated above (see Figure 1).FIGURE 1 OMITTED lay FitFor all CFA and SEMs both absolute and incremental goodness-of-fit indexes were used. Absolute fit was assessed using the chi-square statistic. Incremental goodness-of-fit measures were the co mparative fit index (CFI Bentler, 1992), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and the square up mean square error of approximation (RMSEA Steiger Lind, 1980). The CFI and TLI indexes have coefficient values ranging from vigor to 1.00, with values of .90 and higher being traditionally viewed as representing good fit (Bender, 1992). Fit values for the RMSEA suggest adequate fit where values hang between .08 and .10 and acceptable fit where RMSEAs are below .08 (Byrne, 2001 MacCallum, Browne, Sugawara, 1996) Hu and Bentler (1999) suggest that a RMSEA less than or equal to .06 indicates good model fit (Hu Bentler, 1999).ResultsThe results for the measurement models are presented in Table 1. For the CAS the model fit was good and suggested a reasonable approximation to the data. The reliabilities were .78 and .72 for the challenge and the threat scales respectively.For the WCQ model fit was again reasonable. For each of the lower order factors the reliability estimates were planful problem sol ving =.66, social support = .66, positive reappraisal = .79 self-controlling = .63, confrontive coping = .69 escape-avoidance = .77, accepting responsibility = .60, and distancing = .56. For the higher order factors, task-focused and emotion-focused coping, the reliability estimates were .74 and .65 respectively.Results for the JAWS again suggested that the specified two factors were reasonably approximated with reliability estimates of .90 for the positive affect high-arousal (eustress) and .81 for negative affect high-arousal (distress).Correlations, means and standard deviations are presented in Table 2. As expected, challenge appraisal was associated positively with task-focused coping, with eustress and with subjective performance. Although threat appraisal was positively associated with emotion-focused coping it was not associated with distress or subjective performance. Task-focused coping was associated with emotion-focused coping, suggesting that respondents who used more t ask-focused strategies also used more emotion-focused strategies. Emotion-focused coping was positively associated with distress and negatively associated with subjective performance. Eustress and distress were, respectively, positively and negatively associated with subjective performance.All results for the final structural model were standardized. For the final model the goodness-of-fit was reasonable (chi square = 734.1 df = 294 TLI =.92 CFI = .93 RMSEA = .10). All specified paths in the model were statistically significant and in the hypothesized direction (see Figure 1).Hypotheses 1 and 2, that challenge appraisals would be associated with task-focused coping and threat appraisals would be associated with emotion-focused coping, were supported. Hypotheses 3 and 4 that linked eustress and distress to task and emotion-focused coping respectively were also supported. With regard to subjective perceptions of performance in the stress situation, hypotheses 5 and 6 were supported. E ustress was positively associated and distress was negatively associated with subjective performance. Overall the results support the hypothesised model.DiscussionThe aim of this study was to investigate the antecedents and outcomes of the stress process and to include positive (eustress) and negative (distress) affective outcomes. The research showed support for the hypothesised structural model. The relationships between primary appraisal and coping support one of the key propositions of the cognitive-appraisal model of stress the quality of coping strategy is affected by appraisals as to whether a demand represents a threat or a challenge.Previous research has found threat appraisals to be associated with greater use of emotion-focused coping (Lowe Bennett, 2003) and this was supported by the present study. Emotion-focused coping was in turn associated with distress and dissatisfaction with outcomes. Challenge appraisals were not related to emotion-focused coping but were relat ed to greater use of task-focused coping strategies. The implications of these findings for stress management in organisations are considered below.As predicted, challenge appraisals were associated with eustress and perceptions that the stress processes had been effectively managed. The choice of coping strategies was also an important influence on affective outcomes task-focused strategies which focused on call ining the demand were associated with eustress while emotion-focused strategies which failed to address the demand were associated with distress. This suggests that, as proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, when people face a demand it is not the demand in itself but the slipway in which the demand is managed that impact upon outcomes.Implications for researchThe outcome measure in this study was limited to self-reported satisfaction with the outcome of the stress process. Further investigation should examine a broader range of outcomes including objective measures of performa nce and long term variables including physical and psychological health, both of which have been shown to be affected by work-related stressors. Further research is also needed to address several other issues including the precursors to threat and challenge appraisals and mediators of the stress process.A range of factors may affect primary and secondary appraisal processes. Individual difference variables such as anxiety (Skinner Brewer, 2002), personality (Penley Tomaka, 2002) and optimism/pessimism (Riolli Savicki, 2003) have been linked to differences in appraisals, coping and outcomes. Organisational and situational variables such as managerial style and support, work control, organizational culture and employment stability are also likely to impact upon the stress process. Further research into these factors is important to help build effective strategies for managing workplace demands.Implications for practiceWork-related stress is a major problem with honest implications for health and wellbeing but managing it is far from straightforward. This may account for the record ineffectiveness of stress management interventions(Beehr ODriscoll, 2002 Sulsky Smith, 2005). In managing the stressors at work, it is important to identify, assess and control stressors, but also to avoid removing the rewarding aspects of the job. Distress is not the inevitable consequence of occupational stressors when demands are managed appropriately growth and positive change can occur as challenges are faced and overcome. Although distress has become a major concern, it is often not feasible to transpose all stressors from work and this may not in fact be desirable. Recognition of the potential for positive outcomes of the stress process raises the possibility of identifying ways to increase the task-focused management of work-related demands to increase enjoyment, satisfaction and performance. The challenge lies with providing the tools required to increase the effective management of workplace demands.Any suggestion that cognitive-appraisal models of stress imply that stress is an individual problem, best addressed by teaching positive appraisal and coping, is flawed. Primary appraisal includes a subjective assessment of the eternal sleep between demands and resources. Increasing resources or reducing demands is more appropriate and more consistent with legal requirements than attempting to retrain individuals to appraise demands positively, and training in effective coping has been shown to have only limited impact(Folkman Lazarus, 1988). Coping strategies are rarely used singly, and no one strategy or combination of strategies is evermore effective. The ability to use a repertoire of coping strategies flexibly is important. One component of stress management could be to encourage the use of task-focused and pliant coping behaviour and to promote learning that can be generalise to new situations, but stress management begins with considerat ion of organisational issues. Leadership, peer support, organisational culture and policies, work design and reporting arrangements are important as are job analysis, staff selection and training to enhance role lucidness and the fit between the person and the work environment. Effective systems for motivation and performance management are essential.

Market Research On Primarks Clothing Marketing Essay

marketplace interrogation On Primarks Clothing marketing EssayThe UK clothing and foot fall apart (or app atomic number 18l) grocery was worth(predicate) an estimated 46.05bn in 2009, accounting for 5.3% of total consumer spending (Key Note Publications Ltd, July 2010). match to Mintel, (June 2010), or so half (12.7 million) of women in the UK worn- let out(a) the same or even much than on their wearing apparel in 2009 in spite of the economic recession.Consumers involve debase back on waste activities such as holi years and eating out, they down continued to spend on clothing and footwear indicating that they are universe selective about what to spend their money on and are choosing to grease ones palms clothing over a meal out. Over half of boilers suit UK consumers (54%) did not reduce the amount they spent on clothes during the historical year and one in ten dollar bill (11%) of consumers say they actu each(prenominal)y spent more on clothes than they usua lly would over the past year, despite the economic difficulties. This could be because consumers have cut back on leisure activities (Mintel, June 2010).Between 2005 and 2009, the womens outerwear segment actually declined slightly in value, because ordinary impairments were 22% humbleer in 2009 than they were in 2005. This occurred despite the dynamism of spendthrift make, in which more and more garments are bought besides worn nevertheless a few times before they go out of fashion and are disposed of (Key Note Publications Ltd, July 2010).Consumers are now tending towards the cipher end of the market, which is targeted by companies such as Primark, Peacocks and Matalan, or the designer, premium-priced extreme. The mid-market has consequently drive very competitive, with the struggles of Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group and BhS to retain market share (Infomat, elevated 2006).Besides the mid market form, the theatrical role over quantity trend appears to have risen up th e consumer priority list, with almost four in ten consumers who intend to spend more on clothing in the coming year claiming that they bequeath pay more for quality clothes (Mintel, June 2010). Consumers might consider that expensive re minutes tend to be of better quality. in that locationfore, the UK Retailers should oppose quickly in responding and considering the quality mess sequence of their clothing in dictate to satisfy consumers needs and wants and at that placefore, cast up their market share.Background to the studyThe Primark storey has been one of continuing success founded on a unique junto of fast fashion and lean operations. Its operations in Great Britain began in 1973 with four out-of-town stores. The fol lowing year saw the opening of the low UK High Street stores in Derby and Bristol. In the next ten years, 18 stores were added in the UK bringing the number of stores in the 22. Till date, Primark has been sufficient to open 145 stores in the joined King dom. (Primark, 2010).Over the years Primark has been equal to(p) to provide cheap and affordable clothing, but the quality of the carrefour has been questionable. In the first and second quarter of the year, Primark recorded a 17% year-on-year gross revenue increase in which it was driven by more selling space, Primark looks potential to continue in a similar successful vein for the predicted future, but its continued growth is not without some market barriers, Primark could be shit disfranchised and its lack of association with quality could also prove reproving in the massive term.(Mintel, 2010)The retail landscape is about to change as the deflation of the last decade comes to an abrupt end. Raw material prices, freight and wear out costs (particularly in the Far East) are rising and, coupled with the imminent VAT increase and unfavourable foreign exchange movements, clothing prices on like-for-like items are expected to rise by at least 5% next year Mintel (2010). Primar k shagnot continue to provide cheap clothing because of the tall production cost and tax rate, if the prices of the products are increased and the quality keeps thwart the consumers, consumers could decide to switch back their trustworthyties to the mid market retailers like fracture and H and M who have celebrity designers such as Stella McCartney and pry Choo designing ranges for them to reassert themselves in the clothing retail market.Primarks main cogitate of clothing is producing value clothing which butt end be afforded by the low and middle class consumers. But there could be trouble along the way as the perception of product quality appears to be slipping, consumers are now obtain for deals and graveling value for money. The main test of this speck is to improve its quality and reposition its image in the minds of the existing and radical consumers.Management ProblemThe major expel facing Primark is to improve its quality and reposition its image in the minds o f the existing and new consumers and thereby increase its market share than its current market position. Therefore the Management closing Problem would beHow Primarks clothing could increase its market share.Market Research problemsA market inquiry problem bequeath be carried out to support the management decisiveness problem of Primark. Therefore the market question problem for the study impart beTo assure consumers steads and the level of gladness derived from current product qualities.Research ComponentsThe look for components are used for identifying the market interrogation problem. Therefore the look into components are What criteria do consumers use in selecting a clothing brand? How do consumers evaluate Primark and its competitors based on the identified choice criteria? What are the consumers bearings towards Primark? To determine the psychographic and demographic profile of the consumers literary works reviewGlobally, clothing continues to serve the common ch ord basic functions of concealment, protection and identity. However, when obtain for a piece of clothing, the third factor identity is the criteria that the consumer in ripe society is completely engrossed with. Clothing has the ability not moreover to represent status in society, or act as a measurement of ego-esteem, but usher out reveal personality and what values a person holds dear to them (What you wear is what you are, 2010). Solomon and Ranbolt (2004). confirm that revealing identity through the clothes a person wears is a conscious finality A consumer exhibits attachment to an objectto maintain his or her self-conceptClothing can function in a similar way (p. 148). This perception of how consumers see themselves is called the ego-Concept Theory, which categorises the term Ideal Self as something a person is always refineing to achieve. Therefore a retailer will be more successful if the goods they sell quicken a person in realizing their ideal self (Diamond 2 006).Undoubtedly, the ideal self of the UK consumer is an increasingly fashionable one. This does not just apply to the younger age base, but also the old(a) and more affluent age group who enjoy keeping up to date with current trends. Previously, this was very hard to accomplish as there was virtually no consumer choice for the older market segment, but value stores have attempted to address this issue (Clothing Market in the United Kingdom, 2006). These value chain stores allow consumers to tarry fashionable sequence computer memory on a budget and have arguably led to the creation of the term Fast Fashion. This refers to the current consumer garb of only wearing a piece of clothing a handful of times before it becomes unfashionable and is discarded (Clothing Footwear Industry Market Review 2010). Selling unfashionable items at rock-bottom prices and thereby advance this unsustainable practise does not enhance a companys re positionation as Solomon and Rabolt (2004) deal the green movement, is a priority for many consumers around the world (p. 148). beingness socially responsible has been a constant issue for Primark and its low price and so-called fast fashion has prompted inquiries into how it can achieve this without ignoring ethical guidelines. This event became clear when BBCs Panorama series went behind the scenes in India only to find children working in slum-work shop ats for poor pay on terribly long hours (Primark on the rack, 2008). Such production lines contribute to the quality of the end product that Primarks displays on its rails and while consumers may be prepared to put up with poor quality during the recession, the latest research shows that this, among early(a) factors, will soon change The average prices paid for apparel could well clams to increase, for three reasons a move towards higher quality, comfort and design pack for more expensive but sustainable products (Clothing Footwear Industry Market Review, 2010). Due to th e competitiveness of the UK clothing industry (Clothing Market in the United Kingdom, 2006), it is vital that in order to remain successful retailers become more responsive to the needs and wants of consumers (McMeekin, 2009).As argued by Alex Blyth, presenting a brand as cheap without ruining its value is one of the trickier marketing strategies to master ( Alex Blyth, 2010). Primark real needs to focus more on adding value to their product while having minimum effect on price as lower price is eventually their strength the same has been concluded by Robert Passikoff The buying decision has shifted from price to an even greater emphasis on value.Primark which already do a good use of its Suppliers chain during recession, by offering locomote down prices to pull more customers and successfully maintaining its competitive edge .However Primark can stress on its suppliers to add more value ( musical note and other attributes) to the products so that growing market segment which ten d to adopt to quality product can be extracted. This will not only athletic supporter Primark attract more customers but will also turn the satisfied customers to stanch customers. A leading communications company found via delight research that those customers proclaiming to be extremely or very satisfied were their least remunerative customers in terms of revenue and product usage indicators( Pete Clark / Graham Tutton Oct 2007).Our research is led by the spirit of growth and increasing the market share, this is requisite by the market implicitly and explicitly. Enhancing your business performance is a aeonian process. World-class organizations do not want satisfied customers. Developing strong, loyal relationships with customers, effectively managing these relationships, and applying the latest thinking to measuring and managing customer perceptions, are the keys to turn satisfied customers to loyal customers ( Pete Clark / Graham Tutton Oct 2007).Based on the previous stu dies we try to find that what values (Corporate Social Responsibility, value, Quality, patronage effect or bell ringer Identity) most to the Primarks Customers, and how can Primark add value to its product? So that more customers could be attracted and more diverse segments of the market could be targeted.Research sampleThe secondary information demonstrates that there are some consequential factors which can have influence on the perception and situation of the consumers through the decision-making process. i.e. the price, if a higher price or a lower price can affect the attitude of consumers towards Primark brand image quality pleasant to others, joint of mouths do consumers feel satisfied of the shop surround of Primark or not the durability of the products style of clothing comfort packaging and fabric also. furthermore the researchers also need to identify the current situation of Primark and compare with other competitors in clothing industry. Then on the next level, the researchers would like to jazz if the attitude change has an impact on the shop frequency at Primark, or to what extent they can influence the consumers buying behaviour .And also the researchers defined two factors as the moderators needed to be analyse when examen the buying behaviour of the consumers. By using this model and testing the research questions and hypothesis to solve the manager problems How can the marketers of Primark to increase the market share.At the first place, the 10 factors evaluative criteria towards Primark are the independent variables and the perception and attitude towards Primark of the consumers is the dependant variable. However, the continuous model shows that the change of attitude could become as an independent variable when the researchers going to find the relationship between the satisfaction of consumers and the frequency to shop at Primark which is defined as a dependant variable. . And moreover the two moderators (gender and age group) are also independent variables which should be tested through the researching process.Research Question and HypothesisBased on the secondary data and the research model, there are some questions and anticipate for the researchers, so that to clarify the relationship and influences between different variables.What are the tiny factors when shopping for clothes?H1 There are certain factors that influence the decision making of shopping for clothes.What are the important factors that can affect the attitudes of the customers when shopping at Primark?H2 There are some important factors that would affect the attitudes of the customers when shopping at PrimarkDoes brand image influence the buyers attitudes towards Primark?H3 cross off image is a key factor that has an impact on the shopping attitude towards Primark.Is there a relationship between the high quality of products and the satisfaction of the consumers?H4 There is a significant relationship between the quality of products an d the positive attitude towards PrimarkIs there a relationship between the low price and the attitude of the customers?H5 There is a significant association between the customers preference and the low price of the products in Primark.Is there a relationship between shopping behaviour of consumers and demographic index?H6 There is an significant association between consumers shopping behaviour and demographic index.Appendix 1 QuestionnaireLeeds UniversityBusiness school dayDear Respondent,This questionnaire is purely for educational research and we are grateful to all who participate. Wewill be completing our MA in Corporate communication theory and Public Relations from the Leeds University Business School in September 2011. The data derived from the questionnaire will be analyzed to produce a marketing research project as part of our degree programme.The purpose of this survey is To determine the factors that consumers consider as importantwhile shopping for clothing. The findin gs of the study would do to suggest an appropriateframework to Primarks clothing to increase its market share. any of your responses will be kept confidential and all of the information will be analyzed and reported as grouped data. The study will be incomplete without your response and support. We kindly request you to fill in the required information. We appreciate your time and generosityPart I popular Shopping Behavior about ClothingHow often do you shop for Clothing?- hebdomadally - Monthly - at one time in two months- Once in three months - Once in six months neighborly find out the most suitable preference you would consider while buying clothing.- According to need - During the season - During the sales- Only on special days or festivalsKindly tick the most appropriate preference of your shopping destinations.- Independent Shop - Shopping Centre - Markets- early(a) (Please specify) ________________________Which is the most important factor influencing your clothing sho pping decision?- Newspapers / Magazines - Friends / Relatives - TV- Internet - Posters / Hoardings- Other (Please specify) _________________________Kindly identify the importance you henchman with each of the attributes while you shop forClothing.Least important in truth important Brand image 1 2 3 4 5 Quality of clothing 1 2 3 4 5 Price 1 2 3 4 5 Style 1 2 3 4 5 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 Fabric 1 2 3 4 5 Durability 1 2 3 4 5 How pleasing is it to others 1 2 3 4 5 Shopping environment 1 2 3 4 5 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5Part II posture towards PrimarkHave you ever shopped for clothing at Primark?- Yes - No (If no, then go to question No.9)How often do you shop for clothing at Primark?-Weekly - Monthly - Once in two months- Once in three months - Once in six monthsWhat do you shop for in Primark?- Mens wear -Womens wear -Childrens wear -Home waresKindly identify the importance you associate with the following attributes when you shop forPrimarks clothing.Least important Very important Brand image 1 2 3 4 5 Quality of clothing 1 2 3 4 5 Price 1 2 3 4 5 Style 1 2 3 4 5 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 Fabric 1 2 3 4 5 Durability 1 2 3 4 5 How pleasing is it to others 1 2 3 4 5 Shopping environment 1 2 3 4 5 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5Kindly identify your satisfaction level with each of the follow clothing outlets.Very Dissatisfied-Very Satisfied MS 1 2 3 4 5 GAP 1 2 3 4 5 ZARA 1 2 3 4 5 TK Maxx 1 2 3 4 5 HM 1 2 3 4 5 NEXT 1 2 3 4 5 Topshop / Topman 1 2 3 4 5 Bhs 1 2 3 4 5 River Island 1 2 3 4 5 Primark 1 2 3 4 5 New Look 1 2 3 4 5 Matalan 1 2 3 4 5 Peacock 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please specify) 1 2 3 4 5Would you like to make some suggestions that would help Primark to improve its clothing quality?-Part III Personal schooling1. Gender- Male - Female2. Age- Under 20 - 21-29 - 30-39- 40+3. Education- Primary School - Secondary School - College- University - Post graduate - Other4. Occupation- Student - Service - Business- Other Professions5. annual Income- Under 20, 000 - 20,000 29, 999 - 30,000 39,999- 40,000+6. Marital Status- Single - Married / CohabitantThank you for share-out your precious time